The Trail of Tears the most regretted event for Americans - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 6 Words: 1664 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/08/02 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Trail Of Tears Essay Did you like this example? Ever since Christopher Columbus sailed the ocean and landed in the Bahamas in 1492, Europeans have taken over Indian land. They continuously intruded, destroyed and stole from the Indians. It was obvious that eventually, a conflict would arise from these doings. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Trail of Tears the most regretted event for Americans" essay for you Create order After a long time of tension and rebellions against the colonists, the proclamation line of 1763 banned the settlements west of the Appalachian Mountains, forcing American and European colonists to keep their distance from the Indians. Sadly, for the Cherokee Indians, more genocide, destruction, and intrusion on the land was yet to come. The Trail of Tears or The Indian Removal Act, was put into place by the Congress and was signed by the President, Andrew Jackson on May 28th, 1830. It must be assumed that the Native Americans were never really human in the eyes of the American people; they were just constantly in the way and always someone to win a battle against if need be. In 1823, the decision in Johnson v. McIntosh proclaimed that the Indians were not owners of their land and that they only had the right to occupy the land. However, the Cherokees were already expecting this. The evidence in the Supreme Court case, heard by Chief Justice John Marshall, was all negative towards the Indians. Marshall said that before European colonization Native Americans were nomads, not permanent farmers. To say that the Indians had no real connection to the land they occupied was extremely inaccurate ethically and historically. Unfortunately for the Indians, the Discovery Doctrine came into the Supreme Court case, stating that Indians do not own land. This viewpoint dealt them a massive blow to their court trial, making it almost impossible for them to win. During the duration of the court trial, the Indians made many attempts to appeal the ruling of the Supreme Court, but one splinter of the Cherokee tribe agreed to give up their lands. In response to this, John Ross, the principal chief elected by the Cherokee nation, enacted a passive resistance movement. Ross was greeted by the federal soldiers that were present to vigorously remove the natives from their lands. Andrew Jacksons successor, President Martin Van Buren, ordered these federal soldiers to remove the Indians. This army captured over 18,000 men, women and children bringing them west, where they would be forced to live. The federal government tried negotiating a treaty with Chief John Ross, but during this process, the Treaty Party laid a deal upon John Ridge they knew he wouldnt accept. Ross was afraid of getting beat by the Treaty Party, so he told Jackson that the Cherokees would surrender their land for $20 million. Knowing that the federal government would never pay that much for the land, Ross just avoided the issue. Ross recommended that the Senate come up with an offer themselves since Jackson rejected him. When the Senate named the price as $5 million, Ross took this offer immediately. Ross knew the land that the government wanted was far more expensive than the Cherokees had asked for. Moreover, the government of the United States arranged the incredibly fraudulent Treaty of New Echota with the Treaty Party. This superficial Treaty Party was led by a Cherokee tribe leader named Major Ridge. He had told the government that he represented the Cherokee nation, but he only spoke for a small group of them. The Treaty of New Echota stated that the Cherokee Indians would give up their land in northern Georgia to the federal government, for five million dollars in compensation. This sent Chief John Ross into a rage. He was furious and tried to reason with the Senate that the Treaty Party did not represent the Cherokees at all. The Senate ignored Ross, and the Party was ratified by a single vote, starting the aggressive removal of indigenous people from Georgia. The Cherokee Indians were forced into the boats to travel from their homes in Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, and North Carolina to Oklahoma where they eventually awaited their destiny. On their long journey, tribes were forced into small forts where they had to make do with limited resources. The Indians were given little food, sometimes having to share between numerous people. On the trail, battles of hunger and disease were present. Due to thousands of Native Americans being forced from their homes to move west with little food or water, it was no surprise that a large amount of people were infected with typhus and smallpox. Sanitation was not something that was taken seriously, so those pathogens spread like wildfire. It was almost impossible to forage for food when the Native Americans were only taken through trails that would hinder their search in the wilderness for berries or fruits. The Cherokee and other tribes were confined to large groups, with very little space. Later, chie f John Ross urged General Winfield Scott to split up these large groups and allow the people to wander off the path and into areas where scavenging was feasible. Thankfully for John Ross, he was able to save some of his people, and cut down the mortality rate for a short period. As the Cherokee Indians and many other tribes advanced along the trail, winter came. The winter of 1838 through 1839 was one of the most brutal winters the people had ever seen. The materials given to the Indians were insufficient. The water was hard to come by and their clothing was limited. The winter of 1838, is when the Cherokee Indians began their thousand-mile journey. After arriving at their designated city by boat, they were forced to travel by foot on the long, treacherous journey; some without shoes or moccasins. This migration began in the last Eastern capital of the Cherokee Nation Red Clay, Tennessee. As soon as the long and tiring journey began, many complications arose. Disease infected almost everyone forcing the tribes to travel longer distances to avoid any cities. Finally, after crossing the Tennessee and Kentucky rivers, they arrived at the Ohio River. There, the hunger-plagued Indians were charged a dollar a head to cross the river. Native Americans were very unwelcome at this time. They were charged twelve cents at Berrys Ferry, to cross the river after all the other customers had been helped across the river. The Cherokee and other natives who were not murdered by locals were forced to take refuge under Mantle Rock, where many would wait until their death, just to cross the river. The Cherokees then filed a lawsuit against the United States, alleging that they were forced to pay thirty-five dollars a person just to bury their relatives. Eliza Whitmire was a five-year old girl who was forced to travel with her parents on the trail during the time. She recalls only children, elderly, or the injured Indians being able to ride on the wagons that carried bedding, while all other would walk alongside the wagon. The expedition was made during the cold winter, when many Indians who were unprepared, were subjected to snow and sleet. Unfortunately, this caused many to die from frostbite or other related illnesses. Whitmire also said that those who experience the forced removal, or had parents who experienced it, would never forgot. By December of 1838, Chief John Ross was leading the last group of natives to Oklahoma the way he believed was best. This group was perhaps the most important, because they held all the important documents, records, and laws of the Cherokee nation. It took almost three months to cross sixty miles on land between the Ohio and Illinois river, due to them getting trapped east of the Mississippi river. After recovering many casualties, the trail through southern Illinois is where the Cherokee nation suffered most. Many Indians were also lost in this area. Their journey took longer than expected because the Cherokee were very weary of water travel, and they would not travel very fast in places they were not comfortable. The Cherokee Indians eventually arrived at their relocated destination in Oklahoma. Their forced relocation caused them to not trust the federal government, forever making them feel alienated from the rest of the country- a country where they once peacefully lived. The duration of the Trail of Tears produced a large amount of turmoil, which eventually led to the assassination of Major Ridge and John Ridge. This justifies that the Native Americans were not accepted in the place they lived in. The Cherokees who lived in single homes instead of with the rest of their tribe however, were an exception. The federal government thought these select Cherokees were less daring, and less of a nuisance than those who lived in the larger groups. In particular, a small group of about 400 Cherokees lived in North Carolina, in the Great Smoky mountains which were owned by a white man named William Holland Thomas. As a young boy, Thomas was adopted by the Cherokee Indians. This was superb for the Indians who lived on his land since they were not subjected to the removal or the same amount of disrespect the rest of the Cherokees were forced to go through. According to many first-hand accounts and history textbooks, the Trail of Tears was one of the most regretted events in American history. In 1987, the United States Congress designated the Trail of Tears Historic Trail, in an attempt to correct their wrong doings. This trail stretched over 2,000 miles, and nine states. As of today, the Cherokee Indians are the largest Native American tribe. It is incredibly significant and important to emphasize how much improvement they have experienced over the years. Knowing the facts read in the previous pages, the Cherokee Indians and other Native American tribes were not supposed to thrive again, even IF they made it past this treacherous trail. Over 4,000 Cherokees died from many different reasons but they all had a huge impact in the lives of the Indians. The Cherokee Indians called this journey the Trail of Tears in order to sum up the pain and suffering caused by this traumatic event.

Tools and Techniques Used by Police - 1094 Words

Tools and techniques used by the police, that support policing and crime prevention, include Geographical information systems (GIS) and SARA, however, the European Union Network on Crime, uses the â€Å"Five I’s† method (Shaw, et al, 2010, p.xx). According to the European cross-country crime statistics, surveys and reports, 2012, justice, crime, and crime prevention measures, were not part of the EU acquis until the mid-1990s, so data has only been collected from Member States since then. The European Commission’s DG Home Affairs implemented a Statistics Action Plan 2011 – 2015 to measure crime and criminal justice as part of the 2009 Stockholm Program, with the aim to create an open and secure Europe to get more valid and coherent data across the European Union. The repot is focused on all EU Member States and based on the following sources: a) Eurostat – these reports focus mainly on statistics illustrating the number of offences recorded by the police. Statistical data on crime rates and trends are a central component of knowledge-based prevention. b) International Crime Victims Survey (ICVS) – it has evolved into leading survey programs which look at citizens’/victims’ experience of crime in different countries. The most recent rounds of surveys took place in 2005 and 2010. c) International Self-Report Delinquency Study (ISRD) – the study focuses on self-reported crime data and was conducted in 13 countries with the goal to describe the span of criminality of childrenShow MoreRelatedManagement Styles And The Type Of Style1370 Words   |  6 Pagesstakeholders. There will be an array of supervisory leadership styles, and that particular style will impact a subordinate’s work ethics as they look up to you as a source of guidance and leader. It is a moral obligation for supervisors at all ranks in a police department; to instill positive and good work ethics into the minds of less experienced officers. This case study will explore various management styles and the type of style I personally chose to lead by. This case study will also evaluate personnelRead MoreDna Profiling And The Criminal Justice System1372 Words   |  6 PagesIn November of 1983, 15 year old Lynda Mann was found raped and murdered on a deserted road, and although police were able to obtain a semen sample from her murderer the case remained unsolved. In 1986 the killer struck again murdering 15 year old Dawn Ashworth, once again leaving behind semen, but this time the police were able to use DNA profiling to match the semen to a suspect. Colin Pitchfork became the first person to be caught based on mass DNA screening, and the first to be convicted basedRead MoreInfluence of Vollmer and Wilson on Modern Law Enforcement1663 Words   |  7 Pagesmodern law enforcement since the twentieth century. August Vollmer instituted university training as a tool for young officers in training and under Vollmer’s teachings; O.W. Wilson pioneered the use of advanced training for officers and is also known for the start of criminal justice as an academic field. Wilson was also instrumental in applying modern management and administrative techniques to policing. Vollmer’s drive for educational innovations and improvements has changed policing tremendo uslyRead MoreCommunity Policing and Problem Solving1135 Words   |  5 PagesCommunity Policing and Problem Solving Policing John K. Forrest II CJS/210 August 15, 2010 Travis Coldwell Community Policing and Problem Solving Policing When police departments and crime rates of the past are examined there are some apologist who believe that America would be in a better law enforcement situation provide the policies of the past we put back into use. With the public becoming more technologically advanced and criminal’s awareness of prosecution avoidance, communityRead More Future of Policing Essay1518 Words   |  7 Pagesinclude, better educated police officers and police managers, consolidation of police departments to save on money and resources, upgraded technology, race and gender equality, better testing techniques to recruit and promote within the department, and improved proactive planning techniques. One of these proactive tools that will surely become more widely used and implemented better is community policing. It has been evolving since its first introduction into the police world and will see more reformsRead MoreFuture of Policing1538 Words   |  7 Pagesinclude, better educated police officers and police managers, consolidation of police departments to save on money and resources, upgraded technology, race and gender equality, better testing techniques to recruit and promote within the department, and improved proactive planning techniques. One of these proactive tools that will surely become more widely used and implemented better is community policing. It has been evolving since its first introduction into the police world and will see more reformsRead MorePolice Enforcement And Criminal Investigation Essay974 Words   |  4 Pagesof these crimes. Criminal investigative techniques were not just born from thin air, some thought and planning had to go into figuring out the proper ways to go about doing things. Pioneers of the criminal justice and criminal investigation field such as August Vollmer, Alphonse Bertillon, Edward Henry, and Edmond Locard have made superior contributions to the development of criminal investigative techniques. These techniques have impacted the way police operate today and set a substantial baseRead MoreUse of Force Continuum Essay669 Words   |  3 Pages A use of force continuum is a standard that affords law enforcement officials security officers (police, probation, or corrections) with guidelines as to how much use of force may be used against a repelling subject in a given situation. In certain ways it is similar to the military’s escalation of force. The reason of these models is to clarify, both for officers and citizens, the complex subject of use of force by law officers. They are often vital parts of law enforcement agencies useRead MoreOffender Profiling : A Technique For Identifying The Personality And Behavioral Features Of An Offender Essay838 Words   |  4 PagesOFFENDER PROFILING According to the article, offender profiling is a technique for identifying the personality and behavioral features of an offender based on an analysis of he/she committed. There are two types of offender profiling: inductive and deductive profiling. Inductive profiling technique uses an offender profiling from what is known about other offenders (criminals). Deductive profiling deals with the criminal’s evidence relating to him/her. The aim of the research was to examine the utilityRead MoreThe Forensic Science of Criminal Profiling Essay1436 Words   |  6 PagesThe Forensic Science of Criminal Profiling Profiling: an invaluable tool for catching criminals and killers. Profiling is a relatively new approach to crime solving, put in place by forensic psychiatrists. Criminal profiling is the process by which a practitioner analyses information from a crime scene in order to create physical and psychological profile of the perpetrator. All information from a crime scene is a reflection of the criminals behavior. And this behavior can create a surprisingly

E-Commerce and E-Business

Questions: You are required to determine and evaluate strategies that build and maintain trust in consumers towards online shopping so that they are attracted to purchase products and perform repeat purchase. Your report should include the following: 1. Assessing in which way organisations obtain competitive advantage by utilizing e-commerce? 2. Analyse in which way organisations attract customers through social media to buy their products online and to promote sales? 3. Critically analyse the strategies that organisations use to build and maintain trust in consumers towards internet shopping? Answers: Introduction: E-commerce, a term which is the acronym of electronic commerce, refers to the methods of trading of products and/or services by the utilization of computer networks, more precisely the Internet. The various technologies that facilitate the processes of electronic fund transfer, mobile commerce, processing of online transactions, the management of supply chains and/ or automated system of collection of data can be considered as processes that fall under the broader spectrum of electronic commerce. Electronic commerce systems generally use the internet for at least some of the activities that form a part of the life cycle of the transaction, while the rest of the functionalities can be performed by the utilization of other technologies. In this report, an in detailed analysis of electronic commerce systems has been made, the emphasis being given on the strategies that are used by various electronic commerce sites so that they are able to build a sense of trust among their customers and maintain it (Loshin and Vacca, 2004). E-commerce: Any business that is about to conduct electronic commerce must employ at least one or all of the activities mentioned in the following section: 1. Maintain an official website for the purpose of online shopping, that is, 2. Participate in various online marketplaces which facilitate the process of business deals between two or more business houses and / or business with the customer. 3. Business to businessselling and buying. 4. Collection of data using social media and/ or other internet based technologies and the proper utilization of this data. 5. Interchange of electronic data between business units. 6.Performing the operation of branding and/ or marketing by performing electronic communication with the potential customers (Tutorialspoint, 2015). 1. Competitive advantage gained by organizations by the utilization of electronic commerce: When organizations utilize the facilities of electronic commerce, the following competitive advantages can be achieved: 1. The employment of a powerful electronic commerce system enables an organization to conduct their business in those parts of the world where the company could not possibly set up physical business centers (Schneider and Perry, 2000). Focusing on the regional market might at first be advantageous to any business concern, but in the long run might prove to be restrictive to the growth of the business. This is the primary reason behind the interest that most of the business organizations express these days in setting up electronic commerce facilities. Another advantage of the utilization of electronic commerce is that services can be provided to the customers located at any place in the world, without setting up any satellite offices at those locations (Karakaya and Stark, 2013). 2. The product catalog maintained in the electronic commerce websites are generally able to provide much more effective and in depth information regarding the products that are being manufactured and/ or sold by the organization. This unique feature of electronic commerce sites no doubt adds to the competitive advantage of the organizations that employ such technologies (hbr, 2015). 3. In the past few years, electronic commerce sites have gained the ability to personalize the offers that they make available to their customers (Turban, 2000). Customers are provided with their last purchase history, and/ or links to similar products based on their search items: such facilities are no doubt helpful to the regular customers of an organization. The efforts that the organization put in towards the personalization of the services that they make available to their customers help them to earn loyalty (Clemons, Kauffman and Weber, 2010). The Amazon.com is considered as the most widely used electronic commerce site of the world: the organization is US based and dedicated websites that provide service to large parts of Europe and Asia(Amazon.com, 2015). The website has a huge group of loyal customers who blindly rely on the services provided by the organization. Amazon.com is an ideal example of an e-commerce site that had implemented all the strategies that have been mentioned in this report so as to gain the trust of the target customers and retain it. 2. Using the Social media to attract customers: Most companies and organizations these days actively utilize the social media so as to make their online presence felt by their potential customers. Organization generally create accounts on social media sites like that of Facebook, twitter, LinkedIn, etc and encourage their customers to communicate with them and to actively take part in such discussions that would be helpful in enhancing their products and/ or services even further(Kauffman, Li and van Heck, 2010). The following section provides the insight to some of the strategies that are adopted by various organizations to attract potential customers: Organizations primarily indulge in extensive research to determine which social media site is more frequently used by their target customers. The results of this research provide them with the ideas regarding which social media to focus on in order to grab the attention of a larger number of potential customers. In the next step, the organizations actively notice the activities that their potential customers take in such that they can come up with activities would be able to attract their attention. Social media sites particularly Facebook allows the organizations to promote their products on the account pages of the users, a feature known as Facebook offers. Facebook offers can be directly created from the home page used by an organization, and can be created by any organization, irrespective of the fact that whether they have an online business or their operations are entirely offline based. Besides this utility, Facebook also provides the utilities of generating traditional digital branding advertisements. Although such promotional activities can achieve a wide range of objectives, yet most organizations use these features to attract their potential customers. Such offers are often hyper-texted so that users having genuine interest in these products able to visit the websites of the organization for further details (Cho, 2010). The social media accounts used by the organizations are often used to keep in touch with those customers who had already subscribed for e-mail notifications. While most customers opt for periodic notifications, the organizations use this strategy to make them aware of the various available offers on a daily basis. Hosting an exclusive promotion and/or contest section on the social media account page is the most frequently used strategy adapted by organizations to generate interest among the social media users. Last but not the least, most reputed organizations maintain an official company profile in social media site like that of LinkedIn. The various operational detail of the organization are provided in such profiles, along with the details of the corporate hierarchy that is maintained in the organization. Such profile are continuously updated so as to grab the attention of various corporate clients who themselves maintain official organizational profile in such social media sites. The Boo.com is considered as a failure in the industry of electronic commerce: within a year of its inception, the organization failed due to lack of proper promotional activities and communication with their customers. This electronic commerce site aimed at selling branded clothes to their target customers: however, poor promotional strategies and wrong decision of not using social media sites for promotional purposes led to the failure of this organization. 3. Strategies Used By Organizations For Building And Maintaining Trust In Consumers Towards Internet Shopping: Researchers are of the opinion that trust should be considered as a step by step process using which the customer and the organization creates an exchange value. Each time the organization encourages the target customers to provide some personal information, they should also be provided with some awards in form of services and/ or products. The mutual give and take policy should be repeated for sometime in order to gain the trust of the customers that will be based on this collaboration (CHAWDHRY, MASERA and WILIKENS, 2014). The security policies that are adopted by ecommerce sites in general to secure their sites include the following, measures: 1. Choosing secure ecommerce platforms. 2. Using secure connections for online checkouts 3. Setting up system alerts that would beactivated in case ofsuspicious activity The electronic confidence measures adapted by an organization must be able to meet the various requirements of the consumers regarding the Terms and Conditions incorporated by the organization. The measures should be adapted such that the facilities are available to the customers in various stages of the economic transaction that takes place: both during the transaction and after the transaction (Akin and Singh, 2015). The measures that are adapted to deal with requirements of the customer before a transaction occurs include the process of making the benefits of insurance available to the customer, utilizing such security measures that have a reputation in the market and can be trusted, and the incorporation of codes of conduct to be followed by the representatives of the organization, such that the consumer gains an overall trust on the electronic marketplace in general (Zhao, 2005). The measures adapted by organizations to provide services to the consumer during the process of a transaction include the provision of trust seals, providing warranties on the products that are being sold, use of mechanisms that are able to provide security to the financial transactions that occur in between the customer and the organization and utilizing mechanisms such that the delivery channels can be traced by the customers. The organizations should provide implement processes using which the customers can provide feedback and/or rating regarding the services that were provided by the organizations and / or the products that were sold. Such policies help in the process of increasing the consumers trust towards that particular vendor and/or organization, which in turn will only increase the brand value of the organization. The post transaction measures adapted by organizations are o general types: measures exist using which the customers can be provided some satisfactory solution in case any problem arises after the transaction takes place and/ or to provide the customer solution to the concerns that most customer have regarding the protection of any digital asset. Organizations need to provide security measurements to the customers that would be able to prevent fraudulent activity and provide protection to the assets. The legislative assembly of the United Kingdom had introduced a set of regulations; commonly known as the Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002. These regulations have helped in the implementation of the EU's Electronic Commerce Directive 2000 into UK law, which is considered as one of the first set of rules/ regulations implemented regarding internet security of electronic commerce sites. The US government has also implemented a set of such laws, for ensuring the security of data and digital contents that are being used by electronic commerce sites, namely The Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection Act or the ACPA, Childrens Online Privacy Protection Act or the COPPA, The Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act or the ESIGN, and so on. Conclusion: In this paper, the various aspects that are associated with the operational functionality of an e-commerce site have been discussed in details. In the first part of the report, the fundamental principles of electronic commerce have been provided. The benefits of using a ecommerce site has been mentioned in the next part, along with the example of the most successful and widely known ecommerce site. In the next two sections, the different strategies used by organizations so as to attract their customers and to retain their trusts have been discussed and critically analyzed. The various international laws that ensure the security of the data collected by such e-commerce sites have also been mentioned in the last part of the report. References 1. Akin, S. and Singh, R. (2015). Building consumer trust. [online] Available at: https://epubl.ltu.se/1653-0187/2005/04/LTU-PB-EX-0504-SE.pdf [Accessed 1 Jul. 2015]. 2. Amazon.com, (2015).Amazon.com: Online Shopping for Electronics, Apparel, Computers, Books, DVDs more. [online] Available at: https://www.amazon.com/ [Accessed 1 Jul. 2015]. 3. CHAWDHRY, MASERA, and WILIKENS, (2014). Strategies for Trust and Confidence in B2C E-Commerce.COMMUNICATIONS STRATEGIES. [online] Available at: https://www.digiworld.org/fic/revue_telech/436/CS45_CHAWDHRY_MASERA_%20WILIKENS.pdf [Accessed 1 Jul. 2015]. 4. Cho, S. (2010). Perceived risks and customer needs of geographical accessibility in electronic commerce.Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, 9(6), pp.495-506. 5. Clemons, E., Kauffman, R. and Weber, T. (2010). Introduction to the Special Section: Economics of Electronic Commerce.International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 15(1), pp.75-78. 6. hbr, (2015). [online] hbr.org. Available at: https://hbr.org/2012/05/to-keep-your-customers-keep-it-simple [Accessed 1 Jul. 2015]. 7. Karakaya, F. and Stark, S. (2013). Online Trust: Strategies to build confidence from a business perspective.Journal of advanced management and research, 1(1). 8. Kauffman, R., Li, T. and van Heck, E. (2010). Business Network-Based Value Creation in Electronic Commerce.International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 15(1), pp.113-144. 9. Tutorialspoint, (2015).E-Commerce Advantages. [online] Tutorialspoint.com. Available at: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/e_commerce/e_commerce_advantages.htm [Accessed 1 Jul. 2015]. 10. Loshin, P. and Vacca, J. (2004). Electronic commerce. Hingham, Mass.: Charles River Media. 11. Schneider, G. and Perry, J. (2000). Electronic commerce. Cambridge, Mass.: Course Technology. 12. Turban, E. (2000). Electronic commerce. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 13. Zhao, Y. (2005). Dispute resolution in electronic commerce. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Acct 1501 Notes Essay Example

Acct 1501 Notes Essay ACCT1501 ACCOUNTING FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT 1A SEMESTER 1 2008 COURSE NOTES Last Revised: 13th August 2008. kaheiyeh. web. officelive. com Contents Page 3: The Nature of Accounting Page 5: The Balance Sheet Transaction Analysis Page 8: The Income Statement Transaction Analysis Page 13: Financial Reporting Principles Page 18: Adjustment to Accounting Entries Page 23: Completing the Accounting Cycle Page 26: Accounting for Cash Holdings Receivables Page 30: Accounting for Inventory Page 37: Accounting for Non-Current Assets I Page 42: Accounting for Non-Current Assets II Page 45: Accounting for Liabilities 2~ Week 1 – The Nature of Accounting What is Accounting? Accounting is the main way in which organisations present the financial performance and financial position of that organisation. Essentially, it is a language. It is also used to convey economic information to the decision-makers (users). The Rise of Economic Consequences Economic consequences have a very acute relation ship with accounting. Take, for example, the collapse of Enron in 2001. This was due to: ? Misleading accounting ? Accounting scandals Accounting along took the business down and also the auditing firm and demonstrates this relationship. There is a focus on economic consequence in equity markets. This means that the decision maker is usually the investor/owner and they decide the value and the amount of shares they are willing the buy or sell. Users of Accounting Some users of accounting include: Management: To Monitor and Control Creditors: To decide lending amounts and terms Customers: To buy the product or not? This generally applies to large buyers, not the end consumer) Tax Office: To see the assessable income Regulators: To check for compliance with legislation and laws Analysts: To provide recommendations to potential and current shareholders Competitors: To gain insight into the businesss strategies Managers: To decide on performance incentives (Pay rises, bonuses etc. ) Employees: To check their work, pay and conditions Accounting is a dynamic field. It can adapt and is responsive to cur rent events. Double Entry Book-Keeping Double Entry Book-Keeping states that for every transaction, there is a source and a resource. We will write a custom essay sample on Acct 1501 Notes specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Acct 1501 Notes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Acct 1501 Notes specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer That is: RESOURCES = SOURCES Which turns into: ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNERS EQUITY This is known as the Accounting Equation and always balances. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ~3~ Assumptions in Accounting There are a few assumptions in accounting: ? Reporting Entity The enterprise which is being reported should be the same entity (Either the legal entity or the economic entity or both) The Legal Entity is the enterprise itself, such as Woolworths Ltd. The Economic Entity is the consolidated business, such as Woolworths Ltd and all its subsidiaries. Monetary Assumption The universally accepted medium of exchange, such as cash, and in common denominators, such as the Australian Dollar, is assumed. ? Going Concern The report is prepared under the presumption that the business will continue to trade for the indefinite future. ? Period Assumption This assumes that reports are generated at set intervals (per month, year etc. ) ? Historical Cost This assumes that transactions are initially recorded at the price they were bought for. Cash Accounting and Accrual Accounting Cash Accounting is when the transaction is recorded when the actual cash is received. Accrual Accounting records a transaction when it happens, not when the cash is received. ~4~ Week 2 – The Balance Sheet Transaction Analysis The Statement of Financial Position The Statement of Financial Position (aka. The Balance Sheet), shows an organisations resources and claims on those resources at a particular point in time. The sheet shows an enterprises assets, liabilities and owners equity. Owners Equity can be described in different ways: ? A Company: Shareholders equity ? A Sole Trader: Proprietors equity ? A Partnership: Partners equity Most importantly, the Balance Sheet shows the accounting equation: ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNERS EQUITY The balance sheet is usually laid out in the following: ASSETS LIABILITIES OWNERS EQUITY This emphasises the equality between Assets, Liabilities and Owners Equity. Or ASSETS LIABILITIES OWNERS EQUITY Important elements on the Balance Sheet include: ? The entity ? The date at which the statement was prepared ? The currency and amount ? Assets, Liabilities and Owners Equity Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) Requirements The AASB101 requires that the following must be shown on the Balance Sheet: Assets ? ? ? ? ? Cash and cash equivalents Trade and other receivables Inventories Biological assets Investments Other financial assets ~5~ ? ? ? ? Tax assets Property, plant and equipment Investment property Intangible assets Liabilities ? ? ? ? Trade and other payables Interest-bearing liabilities Tax liabilities Provisions Owners Equity ? Contributed equity/Issued capital ? Reserves ? Retained profit ? Minority interest/Outside equity Assets An asset is defined by the AASB Framework as: A resource controlled by the entity as a result of past events from which economic benefits are expected to flow to the entity. AASB Framework Control of an asset is not necessarily limited to legal ownership of the asset. A past event is usually a transaction such as the purchase of an item or through production. Future economic benefit is the potential for the asset to generate profits/cash flows in the future. The asset does not actually need to generate a future economic benefit itself. As long as it helps in generating future economic benefit (such as buildings), it can be classed as an asset. An item must meet all three requirements to be classed as an asset. It must also be noted that persons cannot be considered assets; as you do not control them. An asset should be recognised on the balance sheet if it is probable (more likely than not likely)that any future economic benefit associated with it will flow into the entity and that the asset has a cost or value that can be measured with reliability. The value of an asset can be measured through historical cost, its realisable value (current or market value) (how much you can sell it for now), its present value (value in use) (the amount it can generate), or the current cost (the amount you have to pay to replace it today). Liabilities A liability is defined by the AASB Framework as: A present obligation of the entity arising from past events, the settlement of which is expected to result in an outflow from the entity of resources embodying economic benefits. AASB Framework ~6~ A present obligation may be due in the near future (A present obligation is not a future commitment. Such as the planning of purchasing an asset in two years is NOT considered a liability) and the giving up of resources embodying future economic benefits is the payment of cash or the provision of services as obliged. A liability should be recognised on the balance sheet with the same requirements as that of an asset, except with an outflow of cash and not an inflow. Equity Equity is defined as: The residual interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all liabilities That is: OWNERS EQUITY = ASSETS LIABILITIES Current vs. Non-Current An asset is considered current if it is: ? Expected to be realised within 12 months of the date ? Unrestricted cash or cash equivalent ? Held primarily to be traded ? Expected to be settled in normal business processes If it does not meet these criteria, it is considered a Non-Current Asset. A liability is considered current if it is: ? Due to be settled in 12 months of the date ? No right to extend the settlement date past 12 months ? Held primarily to be traded If it does not meet these criteria, it is considered a Non-Current Liability. Transactions A Transaction is an impact on the companys assets, liabilities and owners equity. The criteria for a transaction are: ? Exchange of economic value ? External to the entity ? Evidence of the exchange ? In dollars for quantification purposes Balance is always maintained in transactions. There are always two or more things moving, hence, Double entry accounting. More on transactions is revealed in Week 3. ~7~ Week 3 The Income Statement Transaction Analysis Relating Performance and Wealth A companys net assets (ie. Their Owners Equity) increases in wealth as the companys wealth increases. The company is there to benefit shareholders but, does it benefit society? The community? The economy? The environment? Some do, some dont. For us, we will focus on looking at the companys benefit to its shareholders. The Statement of Changes in Equity Changes to owners equity can be calculated in this way: Start of Year Balance Add Contributions (new share issues) Add Profit/Loss (Revenue Expenses) Add Increases in Reserves Less Distributions (dividends) -= End of Year Balance Owners equity can be increased by contributions by owners, share capital and profitable transactions and events. Owners equity can be decreased by distributions to owners, dividends and unprofitable transactions and events. Retained Profit is when a company earns profit. That profit can be distributed amongst shareholders as dividends. NET PROFIT DISTRIBUTIONS = RETAINED PROFITS It must be stressed that DIVIDENDS ARE NOT AN EXPENSE! The Statement of Financial Performance The Statement of Financial Performance (aka. The Income Statement) uses the accrual accounting principle and measures the financial performance of an enterprise over a period of time. Basically, it records the change in financial position of a business. Principally; it presents the difference between revenues and expenses. That is: PROFIT = REVENUES EXPENSES Differences with the Balance Sheet: ? The income statement covers a period of time and not a point in time. ~8~ ? ? Both can have extensive explanatory notes which are referred to throughout the statement. Different types of data are displayed such as detailed revenue, expenses, gross profit, net profit and net profit before tax. The Statement of Financial Performance must include: ? Revenue ? Finance costs ? Share of the profit or loss of associates and joint ventures accounted for using the equity method ? A single amount that combines the post tax profit (loss) of discontinued operations and the post tax gain (loss) on the disposal of the related assets ? Tax expense ? Profit or loss The following may be shown on either the statement or the notes for it: ? Income or expenses items that are material ? Analysis of expenses ? Depreciation ? Amortisation ? Employee benefits ? Dividends to equity holders Elements of the Statement of Financial Performance Income Income increases with economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases in liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants (ie. Those from Owners Equity). Income can be further split into two categories: ? Revenue Revenue arises in the course of ordinary activity of an entity. They include sales, fees, interest, dividends, royalties, rents etc. Revenue should be recognised if the good or service has been rendered (ie. The good or service has been delivered) It should be noted that revenue is any sort of inflow of economic benefits. Even if the activity produces a net loss of equity, the inflow of money is still labelled as revenue. ? Gains Gains are no different in nature from revenue, however, they may or may not arise in ordinary activities and are usually displayed separately in decision making. Expenses Expenses are the opposite of revenues. They are decreases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of outflows or depletions of assets or liabilities that result in decreases in equity, other than those relating to distributions to equity participants. ~9~ Capitalising vs. Expensing Capitalising is when the transaction is seen as a deduction in cash but an increase in asset which evens it out with no net change. Expensing is when the transactions is seen as a deduction from cash and also a deduction in Owners Equity. This can create issues if there are large amounts of money involved but not very much with small amounts. If a business continually classes the acquiring of an asset as capitalising (so that Owners Equity is not affected), the business may get into serious problems later on. Recall the definition of an asset from last week. If it does not meet those requirements, consider it under expensing. Cash vs. Accrual Profit An enterprise may post an accrual profit but not a cash profit if the cash has not been received after the day the statement was made. This can cause discrepancies when analysing statements and transactions. In short, the accrual profit is not the same as the cash profit. The incurrence of an expense is not necessarily accompanied by an outflow of cash nor is the earning of revenue necessarily accompanied by an inflow of cash. When should something be recognised? Recognition should occur for revenue when a service has been performed and expenses when you expect to have incurred it. They should be given asymmetric treatment. Under accrual accounting, cash flows are not necessary to recognise revenue and expenses. You do not need to know when cash will arrive, only when cash has been transacted. Expanding the Accounting Equation Consider the Accounting Equation ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNERS EQUITY We know what comprises of assets and liabilities: CA + NCA = CL + NCL + OE But what comprises Owners Equity? Owners equity is comprised of: ? Contributions by owners ? Retained Earnings ? Profit (revenue and expenses) ? Distributions ~ 10 ~ Hence, Owners Equity can be described as: Capital Contributions (CC) + Retained Earnings (RE) + Opening Retained Earnings (Op. RE) + Revenue (R) Expenses (E) Distributions (D) = CC + Op. RE + RE + R E D Therefore, the final equation is: CA + NCA = CL + NCL + CC + Op. RE + RE + R E D We see the Revenue and Expenses are part of the Income Statement and the whole equation is part of the Balance Sheet. This provides us with the link between the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement. Double Entry Accounting: Transactions This is an extension of transactions we briefly introduced in Week 2. We already know of one example of double entry accounting; that being: ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNERS EQUITY However, there is another example: DEBITS = CREDITS ? Debits are abbreviated to Dr Credits are abbreviated to Cr To consider what credits and debits do to each part of the accounting equation, consult this table: Type of Account Assets Liabilities Share Capital Retained Profits Revenues Expenses Normal Debit Credit Credit Credit Credit Debit Increases result in Debit Credit Credit Credit Credit Debit Decreases result in Credit Debit Debit Debit Debit Credit *Note: The section s in italics are all part of Owners Equity, however different parts of Owners Equity have different effects on where to debit and credit. The general rule of thumb is that Normal or Increases result in a Credit and a decrease results in a Debit; this is only different for Expenses. ~ 11 ~ Remember that in a transaction, there must always be two or more effects. One must be a credit activity and one must be a debit activity. They must also keep the accounting equation balanced. Journal Entries Journal Entries are small entries that document transactions with credits and debits. Remember that in every transactions, there has to be at least two effects; one credit, one debit. An example of a Journal Entry is as follows: ________________________________________________________ Date Debit Account Credit Account Short Statement of transaction PR PR $xxx $xxx ________________________________________________________ *Where PR = Posting Reference. This is usually provided for you in the example, such as A1 or E3. Also take note of the indents, this helps to differentiate debits from credits and show that they balance more easily than if they were accounted for in a straight column. ~ 12 ~ Week 4 – Financial Reporting Principles Note: The entire first section of this week (everything before the accounting cycle) is explained in the document, Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements (Published July 2004 by the AASB) and is available at this link: http://www. aasb. com. au/pronouncements/aasb_standards_2005. htm What is Financial Reporting? Financial reporting is used to provide information about a firms financial position, per formance and cash flows to help the users of that information make good economic decisions. The full set of reports (as required by the AASB) includes: ? The Balance Sheet ? The Income Statement ? The Cash Flow Statement (This uses cash accounting) ? The Statement of Changes in Equity (This is not discussed in ACCT1501. ) ? Notes to these accounts and also other relevant material. The notes to the accounts and reports are not required in a There is a demand for this information which stems from the need to make appropriate and reliable economic decisions for the firm. The people demanding this information want to know about the: ? Performance of the firm ? Financial position of the firm ? Financing and investing with the firm ? Firms compliance with laws Framework Within the AASBs framework, we will need to look at four areas: ? Underlying Assumptions ? Qualitative Characteristics ? The elements of the financial report ? Recognition Principles Underlying Assumptions The underlying assumptions are basically the same as those discussed in Week 1. For more details, look at the Week 1 notes. Listed here briefly are the assumptions: ? Accrual Basis This simply means that financial statements should be produced under accrual accounting methods (to record transactions when they occur, not when the cash is received) so that they can meet their objectives. Going Concern Financial reports should be prepared under the assumption that the business that it is reporting on will continue to operate and function for the foreseeable future. ~ 13 ~ This is so that the business has no assumed intention of liquidation or to scale back its operations. Qualitative Characteristics The accounting statements must fulfil a wide rang e of qualitative characteristics so that it can be understood by all. These are: ? Understandability The statements must be able to be understood by a wide variety of people including professional accountants to high school graduates. The way in which the information is displayed is vital to this (i. e. Logical sequence). Relevant information that is complex should still be presented in statements, but less professional users should be advised to seek professional advice. ? Relevance (Materiality) The information presented on the statements must be relevant to the time period that it is describing. It must be based on current information so that proper predictions can be made. The relevance of information is usually classed by its materiality. Information may be relevant and reliable but it may be immaterial. Including this on statements may do nothing but impair its understandability. If the item will not affect the users decisions (i. e. Transactions of small amounts), then it need not be included. Reliability There should be a faithful representation of transactions and events (i. e. No material bias or error. It should be objective). Prudence must be exercised in that assets or revenue or gains are not overstated and liabilities or expenses are not understated. There, however, may be a small level of bias allowed with small immaterial amounts such as those described above. The information in financial reports must also be complete within the bounds of materiality and cost. An omission can cause information to be false or misleading and thus unreliable and deficient in terms of its relevance. If information is to represent faithfully the transactions and other events that it purports to represent, it is necessary that they are accounted for and presented in accordance with their substance and economic reality and not merely their legal form. The substance of transactions or other events is not always consistent with that which is apparent from their legal or contrived form. For example, an entity may dispose of an asset to another party in such a way that the documentation purports to pass legal ownership to that party; nevertheless, agreements may exist that ensure that the entity continues to enjoy the future economic benefits embodied in the asset. In such circumstances, the reporting of a sale would not represent faithfully the transaction entered into (if indeed there was a transaction). @ ? ~ 14 ~ ? Comparability The information that is generated by the firm must be able to be compared with those generated from other firms and to its own statements from earlier periods as well. This means that the information should be presented in the standards as set by the AASB. The firm should state which policy that it has used, any changes to that policy and the effects of those changes. Reliability vs. Relevancy Information that may be relevant can also be unreliable in nature, or representing it would be useless and/or potentially misleading to the users. Such as a lawsuit against a company would be relevant to the users, but its cost cannot be measured reliably. Thus, these should be mentioned on the notes of the statements. Another issue with this is usually with historical cost of assets. The asset is always relevant to the accounting statements but its measurement is not always reliable. The timeliness of the information also matters as the information will lose its relevance if there is a delay in reporting it. Information should always be relevant to when the statements were prepared and not for a period before. Cost vs. Benefits of Information The cost of providing the information to the user should never outweigh the benefits that can be derived from the information that is produced. There are some problems with this as evaluation of the information is largely by judgement. Also, the costs are not necessarily borne by those who will reap the benefits of that information. In the end, there must always be a trade-off between the qualitative characteristics and this is often inevitable. Appropriate balance must be maintained among these characteristics so that it can meet the objective of financial reports. Financial reports should provide a fair and true view of the financial information of an entity. The appropriate application of and the balance of qualitative characteristics will usually lead to this result. The Accounting Cycle The accounting cycle is a never-ending cycle of gathering economic information and presenting that to the users. The cycle is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Transactions Identifying and measuring (Source Documents) Recording (Journal Entries) Classifying and summarising (Ledgers and Trial Balances) Reporting (The Financial Statements) ~ 15 ~ 1. Transactions First, recall the definition of a transaction: A transaction is an economic event that affects a business and needs to be reflected in its financial statements Characteristics of an external transaction include: ? Exchange of items of economic value ? Past Event ? Involves a party that is external to the business ? Evidence ? Measureable in monetary units Internal transactions are adjustments made to records that introduce new data or alter that existing data. It is normally intended to enhance information. This includes things such as the use of office supplies and the depreciation of an asset. Transactions are a vital first step to the accounting cycle and so must not be left out. 2. Source Documents Source documents are those that provide evidence that a transaction has taken place. These include items such as cheque butts, invoices, bank statements etc. . Journal Entries From source documents, the transactions are transformed into more classified and ordered information that is presented in journal entries. However, the problem with journal entries is that they only show the balance at any one point in time. We need ledger accounts to show a change in balance over time (This is similar to how a balance sheet is to the income s tatement). Journal entries were discussed in Week 3; please see Week 3s notes for more details. 4. Ledger Entries Trial Entries A general ledger is a collection of all individual accounts for a business. It shows a list of all accounts in assets, liabilities and owners equity for a firm but the basic ones are assets, liabilities, owners equity, revenue and expenses. These can be represented in Taccounts. As always, debits are placed on the left while credits are placed on the right. Accounts are used to classify transactions and store information for similar transactions. A chart of accounts is basically, a listing of all accounts in the general ledger. They are usually identified by a single number and are listed in the accounting manual. These are different for each firm and it does not matter how they list them. Writing to a ledger can be in the same way as that of journal entries. Debts and Credits to each of the accounts still follow the same rules as those for journal entries (See Week 3 notes). Writing to the ledger is a very simple process of just transferring the information from journal entries directly to the ledger entry. ~ 16 ~ There are other accounting formats used which includes the narrative format. This method is used more widespread than the T-account because it also includes a column at the right to show the net balance of the account after each debit or credit. Otherwise, it is exactly the same as T-accounts. Trial entries are listings of all accounts with their related balances at certain point in time. They are used to check the accuracy of ledgers and journals by seeing if the total debits equal the total credits. Although, even if all the debits equal the credits, it does not necessarily mean that it is correct. All it means is that there are no obvious errors in the documentation of journals and ledgers. Ways to recheck if the trial balance is not in the balance: ? Re-add the trial balance ? Check that the correct amounts are posted in the journal entries ? Check that each ledger is balanced correctly ? Check that everything balances in the journal entries 5. Reporting Finally, this information is reported in the different forms such as the Balance Sheet, Income Statement etc. References @ Page 18-19, Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements Published July 2004 Australian Accounting Standards Board. ~ 17 ~ Week 5 – Adjustment to Accounting Entries During the course of accounting, a business encounters inaccuracies due to the lack of time that is available to make this accurate. A business with very accurate information would do more accounting than actually doing what the business is supposed to be doing! However, once at the end of the financial period, this is where accuracy matters. Adjusting the accounting entries is what makes this correct in the end. As always, remember that the accrual accounting system is used, period assumption and going concern are also assumed. Revenue Recognition Revenue should only be recognised in the current period if it fits all four criteria: All or most of the good/service has been provided to the customer. Costs to generate the revenue have been incurred and measured. Revenue can be measured accurately. Cash or a promise to pay has been received. ? ? ? ? To recognise a revenue means to include it on the Income Statement for that period. First, we must find out how much should be written down as revenue and when. Revenue is earned only when the goods and services related to the inflows of economic benefits or service potential have been provided. For example: If a magazine company receives money for yearly subscriptions, it cannot be classed as revenue until the magazines have physically been sent out to the customers. This can be divided up as staggered revenue for each individual magazine or as one entire subscription at the end of the year. Expense Recognition Expenses should be recognised in the same period as when the revenue associated with it is recognised (i. e. The matching principal). By matching revenues to expenses, a better picture of the business is created. Recognising in this case is the same as revenue; it means it is included on the Income Statement for that period. Expenses are incurred for that period when there has been consumption or loss of economic benefit or service potential. Buying an asset is NOT considered an expense until it has been used up. i. e. Whiteboard markers are not an expense until they have run out of ink or are lost. The same thing is done with things that are expensed over time, such as pre-paid insurance. The company should show that the items value is being used up each month instead of reporting on bigger loss at the end of the year. This shows a companys financial position and performance much more accurately. ~ 18 ~ Adjusting The Entries The adjusting of entries is done at the end of the accounting period, which is assumed to be equal under the period assumption. There are four types of accounts that must be adjusted at the end of the period. Accruals Revenues Expenses Accrued revenues (an asset) Accrued expenses (a liability) Deferrals Unearned revenues (a liability) Prepayments (an asset) Unearned revenue is cash received but the good or service has not been provisioned yet to the customer. It is also known as: ? Revenue received in advance ? Advances from customers ? Customer Deposits An example would be a customer buying a plane ticket for next month from your firm. This would be unearned revenue for you because you have yet to provision the plane journey for the customer. Prepayments are the like unearned revenues but from the payers perspective. This is considered an asset because you have already paid for goods but they have not been received yet. It may be classified as a current or non-current asset depending on how long the benefits are perceived to last for. Continuing on from the last example, this would be from the customers view. He has paid for the service he wants but he is yet to receive that service from the firm. Note that these can be done in the reverse as well. Sometimes, prepayments are seen as an expense at first until the goods and services arrive, at which then they are not considered expenses anymore. They can also split this into two parts: part prepayment and part expenses. Accrued Revenue is when the good or service has been provided but the cash will not be received until the next accounting period. Accrued Expenses are when expenses are incurred in one period but the outflow of cash associated with it is not paid until the following accounting period. (For example: The wages earned